Historical commentary and chronicles, along with literary retellings of the historical material, contribute in different ways to Shakespeare's work throughout his career—earlier, mostly in history plays; later, predominantly in tragedies and tragicomedies—as he considered complex questions of English national origins and identity. Here, Shakespeare derived a significant amount of inspiration and material for Cymbeline from sources treating the ancient Romans and Britons.

1. Excerpt from "The Conquest of Britain under Claudius Caesar,"Nero Caesar, or Monarchy Depraved: An Historical Work, by Edmund Bolton (1624)

[This excerpt from Nero Caesar regarding a coin of Emperor Claudius suggests the state of historical knowledge in England regarding the relationship between ancient Britain and ancient Rome. Bolton's interpretation of the coin, hampered by the lack of a clear image, highlights the ambiguous nature of ancient Briton, reflecting upon their national identity in the early modern period: surrounded by water, they might be a seafaring nation, as the symbol of a tiller would note, but the phrasing comments upon the access to the island, not the travel from the island. The same figure might, however, show the nature of the Britons as farmers, if it were a plow rather than a tiller. In either case, Bolton's discussion also reflects an ambivalence toward the superior might and civilization of continental powers that characterized early modern England as well as ancient Britain.]

Among those precious coins which the treasury of Antonius Augustinus hath afforded to the world, I find one of Claudius's concerning Britain peaceable, omitted by all men who have of purpose handled our affairs.

What the left hand of the image held unluckily appears not in that fair printed copy with which it pleased a great and generous earl to befriend me. It might be a garland, a cornucopia, a little winged victory, or the like, but I could think it was some round figure, the sign of tribute money. The whole may signify that Claudius, the conqueror of Britain, civilized the subdued Britons, the person's gowned habit a manifest token of it, who is otherwise wont to be represented martial and unclothed.

And though the rudder or helm of a ship, which here Britannia holds downward in her right hand as a rest, doth ordinarily signify nothing else in ancient Roman coins but that the country whose figure appears upon the metal is an island whereunto there is no access but by water, yet here perhaps it further noteth that not only the navigation of Britain flourished by his means but that tillage, formerly neglected, did also set up now and prosper, if that which coucheth behind be not the half part of a ship but the hinder end of an antique plow--a coin put forth into the world after the southern Britons were provinciated and the Roman government fully settled here, nor improbably when the colony of old soldiers was drawn and planted at Camalodunum in the twelfth year of Claudius, for that was precisely the time (as that most modest and ancient good friend of mine, William Camden Clarenceux, hath happily and learnedly observed out of another of Claudius's medals), Camalodunum the place upon which the raging tempest of rebellion did first discharge the force of itself as the insolencies of that colony were among the heinous sparks which fired the wronged natives.

This in general was the case and state of Britain so far as the Romans intermeddled from the first entrance of Julius Caesar thereinto, who what he could not materially annex to the mainland, attempted to fasten virtually to the empire, as an out-work.

2. Excerpt from "Of the Britons and the British Chariot of Maecenas under Augustus Caesar,"Nero Caesar, or Monarchy Depraved: An Historical Work, by Edmund Bolton (1624)

[Edmund Bolton sketches the background of Roman invasion and British tribute that serves as background for Cymbelinein his 1624Nero Caesar. Shakespeare's representation of the withholding of tribute as an act of rebellion offers a more dramatic portrayal of the situation than Bolton's historical survey.]

[Julius Caesar's] next successor, Octavius, who, in the consulary registers of the capitol, is Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, second emperor and first Augustus, had somewhat else to think of at his entrance into the empire than the affairs of Britain. But when the Roman world, recovering out of those civil miseries into which the murder of Julius Caesar had headlong plunged it, began to flourish afresh by the benefit of monarchy (the only confessed remedy), then came he down in person as far as into Gallia, with a purpose to re-assail our island, so to force upon it the keeping of covenants (as Dio Cassius{Roman historian also known as Cassius Dio} insinuates) about eight- or nine-and-twenty years from his predecessor's invasions. At this Horace pointeth in his odes.

Some princes, therefore, of Britain, beholding the near approach of so black a tempest, sent special ambassadors to deprecate{beg or pray to prevent} the effects, and (for such reasons as Strabo{Greek geographer and historian} commemorates) prevailed. Julius Caesar assessed upon the Britons of Cassibelan's party a certain yearly payment (three thousand pounds, saith Gaufridus Arturius{aka Geoffrey of Monmouth, the Welsh historian who wrote Historia regium Britanniae}), and it pleased Augustus to content himself with such petty performances as did rather serve for tokens of subjection or acknowledgements of tenure{subservient obligation to authority} than meriting to carry the weight or name of tribute, being customs or tolls upon ivory ornaments for bridles, carcanets{ornate jewelry to be worn around the neck}, or chains of amber, vessels of glass, and other toys, which passed for merchandise between the Gauls and Britons.

. . .

All this while the island was not yoked down with garrisons—not a Roman soldier in it. And Augustus was so indulgent to the state thereof or so provident for his own in having kings for instruments of their proper{own} servitude that he bred up (as the British story saith) King Cymbeline, the third from Cassibelan and the same with Cunobeline whom Greeks and Romans celebrate.

3. Excerpt from Chapter 38, The Chronicles of England, by William Caxton (1480)

[The final battle in Shakespeare's Cymbeline echoes many elements from this medieval version of the Roman invasion following the Britons' refusal to pay tribute. While many of the central points differ—such as the fact that it is Cymbeline's son who refuses to pay tribute, for instance, and the deaths of Cymbeline and Gynder—other aspects suggest continuity, including a soldier who disguises himself by wearing the enemy's armor; the beheading of an enemy and the throwing of the head into the sea; the rallying of the British troops; and even the similarity between the names "Imogen" and "Gennen," Emperor Claudius's daughter.]

Of Kymbalin that was Androgeus' son--a good man and well governed the land of Britain.After the death of Androgen reigned Kymbalin, his son, that was a good man and well governed the land in much prosperity and peace all his life's time, and in his time was born Jesus Christ, our savior, of that sweet virgin Mary. This King Kymbalin had two sons, Guidar and Armoger, good knights and worthy, and when this King Kymbalin had reigned 22 year, then he died and lieth at London.

Of King Gynder that was Kymbalin's son that would not pay the trewage{tribute} to Rome for the land that Cassibelan had granted, and how he was slain of a RomanAnd after the death of this Kymbalin reigned Gynder, his son, a good man and a worthy, and was of so high heart that he would not pay to Rome that tribute that king Cassibelan had granted unto Julius Caesar, wherefore the emperor that was tho{then} that was called Claudius Caesar was sore annoyed and ordained a great power of Romans and come into this land for to conquer the tribute through strength and for to have it on{of} the king, but this King Gynder and Armager, his brother, assembled and gathered a great host yfere{together} of Britons and gave battle to the emperor Claudius and killed of the Romans great plenty.

The emperor had afterward one that was called Hamon that saw their people there were fast{eagerly or almost} slain and privily cast away his own arms and took the arms of a dead Briton and armed him with his armor and come into the battle to the king and said in this manner, "Sir, be ye good of heart for God's love, for the Romans that be your enemies anon{soon} shall be slain and discomfited every one," and the king gave no keep{attention} unto his words ne{nor} his speech for because of the arms that he had upon him and weened{believed} it had be{been} a Briton, but the traitor ever held him next the king, and privily under the shoulders of his arms, he smote the king, wherefore he was dead and fell down to the earth.

When Armager saw his brother dead, he cast away his arms and took to him his brother's arms and come into the battle among the Britons and bade them heartily for to fight and fast lay adown the Romans. And for the arms, they weened it had be{been} king Gynd that afore was slain that they wist{knew} not. Then began the Britons fiercely for to fight and killed the Romans so at the last the emperor forsook the field and fled as fast as he might with his folk into Winchester, and the false traitor Hamon that had slain the king fast anon{immediately} gan{began} for to flee with all the haste that he might, and Armager, the king's brother, pursued him full fiercely with a fierce heart and drove him into a water, and there he took him and anon smote off both hand and head and feet, and hewed the body all to pieces, and tho{then} let cast him{threw him away} into the water, wherefore that water was called Hamon's Haven and afterward there was made a fair town that yet standeth that is called Southampton.

And afterward Armager went to Winchester for to seek Claudius Caesar, the Emperor of Rome, and there Armager him took; and Claudius the emperor, through counsel of his Romans that with him left alive, made peace with Armager in this manner as ye shall hear: that is to say, how that Claudius the Emperor should give unto Armager Gennen, his fair daughter, for to have to wife so that this land from that time forward should be in the emperor's power of Rome upon such covenant that never afterward no Emperor of Rome should take none other tribute of this land but only fealty, and they were accorded. And upon this covenant Claudius Caesar sent to Rome for his daughter Gennen, and when she was come, Claudius Caesar gave her to Armager to wife, and Armager spoused{married} her at London with much solemnity and mirth, and tho{then} was Armager crowned and made king of Britain.

4. Excerpt from "The Complaint of Guidericus," The Second Part of the Mirror for Magistrates, by Thomas Blenerhasset (1578)

[One of many histories of Britain to represent the portion dealt with in Cymbeline, this excerpt from Thomas Blenerhasset's The Second Part of The Mirror for Magistrates has long been recognized as a probable source for Shakespeare's play. The forms of the names, for instance, are identical or almost identical, although a wide range of variations exists among the chronicles. Furthermore, Guidericus's persuasive speech to the court may have served as inspiration for the Britons' speeches to Caius Lucius in 3.1. Other elements may suggest Shakespeare's familiarity with this version, too: shared infrequent words, such as "yoke," and the specific historical details that appear in both imply a connection.]

How Guidericus refused to pay tribute unto Claudius Caesar; how he subdued Galba; how he became desirous to win all the world; spoiled France, Germany, and a great part of Italy; and lastly, how he was miserably slain in a tempest of thunder, even at what time he should have dealt with Caesar. This history is a singular example of God's vengeance against pride and arrogancy.

Guidericus, which ruled the Britain land,
I am the same, of Cymbeline the son.
Cassibelan, my grandsire, did withstand
Sir Caesar's force till Parcae{the Fates} had undone
The fatal knot and twist that they had spun;
Even then too soon the Romans did oppress
This realm, which I to right did me address,Which, that I might the better bring about,
The three estates in court to parle{conference} I
In haste did call, amongst which royal rout{company},
As one who meant for wealth of commonty{commonalty}
How to restore their ancient liberty,
Pronounced the speech which here I shall recite,
Which moved much their manly minds to fight:"The Emperor of Rome hath sent, you see,
Ambassadors, the tribute to obtain,
Which Theomant, subdued, did agree
To pay, but I such greement do disdain.
Shall I to Rome a tribute slave remain
Because they did subdue this realm of yore?
Shall we buy yoke with tribute evermore?Shall we this badge of beastly blemish bear?
Shall Trojans we to Trojans tribute yield?
Of Brutus' blood--a prince withouten peer--
We do descend, whose father first did build
In Italy: he Alba Longa filled
And furnished fine with princely buildings brave;
He was entombed next good Aeneas' grave.Then Romulus of Silvius did succeed,
And Rome of him (as London took of Lud)
Her name, which Alba Longa was indeed,
Built at the first by good king Brutus' blood.
Dare they for guerdon{repayment} of so great a good
Demand of us whose parents patrons were
To them? To do this deed, they do not fear.Let them demand! Ungrateful beasts they be.
Even tribute of us Trojans let them crave,
But we in Mars his fields will pay their fee
If needs they must of us a payment have;
They shall right stoutly{proudly; bravely} then themselves behave.
We will not fear to fight it out in field;
Without revenge we never all will yield.Did Caesar's princely prowess so prevail
That Britons were by Romans brought to bay?
Was Caesar's valure{power} of so great avail
That it could cause Cassibelan's decay?
Why should not then Guidericus assay
By furious force of Mars his bloody field
To make those roaming Romans all to yield?By prowess won{subdued}; who doth not know, by skill,
That he who once as victor wore the wreath,
By changed chance is forced against his will
That garland gay and vital life to leave?
Such ill mishaps misfortune still{always} doth heave{move to a different place}
That he who did subdue but yesterday
Is now subdued and hath the like decay,Which may appear by King Cassibelan,
Whom Caesar thrice in fight did find too strong,
Yet at the last, the lewder{worse} chance{luck} was thine,
Thou little isle: he thrust in with a throng
Of mighty men and did thee double wrong.
Thee then subdued, to Rome he servile made,
Which wrong to right, with this my bloody blade,If you my subjects will thereto consent,
I will not cease till I revenge have seen
And them destroyed with dreadful diry{dire} dent{striking}
Of wrathful war. And therefore now I mean
To bid the base{challenge} and fetch them from their den
To send them word we owe no tribute, we,
But we of them must recompensed be.I to the gods which rule the rolling skies
Have vowed a vow, for country's liberty
To die in field or else that these mine eyes
Shall see you free from foreign tyranny,
To which no doubt their goodness will agree.
Now that you have the whole of mine intent,
You know the cause why I for you have sent.All you therefore which count this quarrel good,
By heaved{lifted} hands let me them understand."
My brother Arviragus by me stood.
"I must not, I," he said, "hold up my hand,
Nor thee herein assist with any band{promise},
For sith{since} we both have sworn allegiance due
To Rome, to Rome I ever will be true.No fear of force, no hazard, no mishap
Doth daunt my mind; I dare what dare be done
Though now we sit in Lady Fortune's lap.
By faith defiled, no honor can be won;
The wrath of God, men perjured cannot shun.
Do thou therefore what best thyself doth seem;
Give them their right, for that is best, I deem.""Sith all but you, my brother, do consent,
My council and my commons do agree,
Yea, all the force of this my realm is bent
To live and die for country's liberty,
Take you therefore this sentence in bon gré{good grace}
Because thou seemst a servile life to love:
The Tower a house is best for thy behoof{duty}.An oath constrained is made to none avail;
To break such oath doth not the faith defile.
Let them go tell to Claudius this tale:
We mean with force to furnish{garrison} this our isle,
Which force himself shall feel within a while,
For if he will not fetch his tribute here,
We then will go and pay him tribute there."Which, when the Roman Claudius had heard,
Though he at home had civil strife in hand
And though he were by foreign foes debarred{prevented}
And could not come himself, yet he a band
Of thirty thousand sent for to withstand
My strength, which strength in the first foughten field{battlefield}
They found so strong that, forced, they all did yield.

5. Excerpt from Chapter 16, "The Third Book of the History of England," from Vol. 2 of The Chronicles of England, Ireland, and Scotland, by Raphael Holinshed (1587)

[Shakespeare drew upon Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles for significant portions of Cymbeline; even in minor elements, he may have borrowed details. One such component relates to the Queen's speech at 3.1.14, particularly where she says that the island is "ribbed and paled in / With oaks unscalable and roaring waters" (3.1.19-20). Some editors have emended "oaks" to "rocks," picturing Caesar's attempts to land his boats and the greater effect coastal rocks might have on a naval invasion, as the Queen goes on to describe. However, Holinshed's description of the use of "trees piked through with iron" and placed in the Thames suggests a different way of interpreting the play's lines. The play's concluding feast and sacrifices also find a source here.]

Thus, according to that which Caesar himself and other authentic authors have written, was Britain made tributary to the Romans by the conduct of the same Caesar. But our histories far differ from this, affirming that Caesar, coming the second time, was by the Britons with valiancy and martial prowess beaten and repelled, as he was at the first, and specially by means that Cassibelan had pitched in the Thames great piles of trees piked with iron, through which his ships, being entered the river, were perished and lost. And after his coming aland, he was vanquished in battle and constrained to flee into Gallia with those ships that remained. For joy of this second victory, saith Galfrid, Cassibelan made a great feast at London and there did sacrifice to the gods.

6. Three excerpts from Albion's England, by William Warner (1586)

6.1. On Brutus[William Warner's Albion's England(1586) presents here a verse history of the origins of Britain, whose name supposedly comes from "Brutus," legendary son of Posthumus Silvius and grandson of Aeneas. Besides the shared name of "Posthumus," the strong association of Jupiter with Posthumus's family (Jupiter being an ancestor of Brutus's on his father's side, Warner shows) links this work to Cymbeline. In addition, although the detail is not mentioned in this work, the name "Imogen" may derive from the name given elsewhere for Brutus's wife, "Innogen." As a result, many associate Cymbeline with a larger early modern impetus to create a national origins myth affiliated with the classical myths of Rome.]

Aeneas dead, Ascanius reigned; Ascanius dead, his brother
Posthumus Silvius did succeed. Lavinia was his mother;
Her sire, Latinus; Faunus, his; and Picus him begot;
And Saturn him: from mother thus Posthumus lacked not
The noblest blood. On father's side, his pedigree was thus:
Jove had Dardanus, and the same begot Erictheus;
He, Tros; Tros, Assaracus; he, Capus; and the same
Anchises; he Aeneas had; of him Posthumus came;
And he was father unto Brut: and thus the Brutons bring
Their pedigree from Jupiter, of Pagan gods the king--
And add they may that Brut his sire of Venus' son did spring.
Thrice five degrees from Noah was Brut, and four times six was he
From Adam, and from Japheth's house doth fetch his pedigree.
Posthumus Silvius, perishing in chase amongst the brakes,
Mistook for game by Brut, his son, Brut Italy forsakes.
And to associate his exile, a many Trojans moe{more}
At all adventures{recklessly or randomly} put to seas, uncertain where to go;
To whom did Fortune, Fortune-like, become a friend and foe,
Till Brut, with no less pain and praise than had his grandsire{i.e., Aeneas} late
Achievèd Latium, landing here, suppressèd so the state
Of all the fiend-bred Albinests, huge giants fierce and strong,
Or race of Albion, Neptune's son (else some derive them wrong)
That of this isle (un-Scotted yet) he empire had ere long.

6.2. On Lud's-Town[In this excerpt from Albion's England (1586), William Warner makes explicit the noble Roman origins of Britain (from the name of "Brutus," who was the grandson of Aeneas) and details the early supposed history of London. First built by Brutus and called Troynovant, the city was then re-named Lud's-Town after King Lud, which is the name by which Shakespeare refers to London in Cymbeline.]

Now, of the Conqueror, this isle had "Brutain"{Britain} unto name,
And with his Trojans Brut began manurage{occupation} of the same.
For rasèd Troy, to rear a Troy, fit place he searchèd then,
And views the mounting northern parts: "These fit," quoth he, "for men
That trust as much to flight as fight; our bulwarks are our breasts.
The next arrivals here, perchance, will gladlier build their nests.
A Trojan's courage is to him a fortress of defense."
And leaving so, where Scots be now, he southward maketh thence,
Whereas the earth more plenty gave, and air more temperature{mildness of climate},
And nothing wanted that by wealth or pleasure might allure.
And more, the lady flood of floods, the river Thamis{Thames}, it
Did seem to Brut against the foe and with himself to fit,
Upon whose fruitful banks, therefore, whose bounds are chiefly said,
The want-less counties, Essex, Kent, Surrey, and wealthy glade
Of Hertfordshire for cities' store participating{sharing} aid,
Did Brut build up his Troynovant, enclosing it with wall,
Which Lud did after beautify, and Lud's-Town it did call
That now is London, evermore to rightful princes true,
Yay, prince and people still to it as to their storehouse drew,
For plenty and for populace the like we nowhere view.
Howbeit many neighbor towns as much ere now could say,
But place for people; people, place, and all for sin decay.
When Brut should die thus to his sons he did the isle convey.
To Camber, Wales; to Albanact, he Albany did leave;
To Locrine, Britain: whom his queen of life did thus bereave.

6.3. On Julius Caesar[In general, this passage from William Warner's Albion's England(1586) covers Caesar's first, unsuccessful, attack in 55 BCE and his successful return in 54 BCE. In addition, a few lines find faint echoes in Cymbeline; for instance, the Queen, like Warner, notes that Britain is not the occasion of Caesar's bragging that he "came and saw and overcame" (3.1.23-24), and the couplet pairing an old man and a boy carries a distant resemblance to Posthumus's couplet at 5.3.58-59.]

This conqueror of Gallia{Julius Caesar} found his victory prolonged
By British succors, and for{because of} it, pretending to be wronged,
Did send for tribute, threatening else to bring the Britons war.
The former going forward first, the Albinests{inhabitants of Albion} to bar
A common foe, concur as friends, and now was come the spring,
When Caesar out of war-won France victorious troops did bring.
But easier won the Grecians land at Pergamon by much
Than got the Latins footing here, their contraries{enemies} were such.
Ye might have seen of Hector's race ten thousand Hectors here
With policy{cunning} on either part, the Romans buying dear
The bloody shore, the water yet less dearer than the land
To them, whom valiantly to proof{to the test} the islanders withstand.
Oft battle they, the Britons still victorious, and in vain
Their foes were valiant: only here was Caesar's force in wane.
And as our men unto his men were as tempestuous thunder,
So did his anchored ships on seas by tempest dash in sunder.
"But twice," quoth Caesar, "Fortune, thou wert opposite to mine,
But thirdly here, to Caesar's self thou wontless{unexpectedly} dost decline."
Conveying then his weary men into his wasted{badly damaged} ships,
To Gallia, there to winter them, he miscontented slips.Of this same victory did spring security and strife:
The Scots and Picts did sunder hence; the Britons, over rife
In largesse, making frolic{glad} cheer, a quarrel then arose
Betwixt the king and Lud's false son{Androgeus, also known as Mandubracius or Mandubratius in some accounts}, and they disjoin{separate} as foes.
That Caesar slips{neglects} advantage such were{would be} error to suppose!
Even of the Britons, some there were recalling back the foe,
And winter past, with doubled power he back again did row.The Romans more, the Britons they far fewer than before,
Offend, defend, fight for, fence from, to win and ward the shore.
But Caesar landed and ensued continual cruel fight.
Thrice put the fierce Cassivellauns{followers of Cassibelan} the Caesarines{followers of Caesar} to flight,
And still the king encouraging in every wing appears:
So giving needless spurs to fight, his soldiers brooked not fears;
Nor little did the Cornish bells offend the Roman ears.
When Caesar's oft successless fight had tired him and his,
Enringèd with his mayhemmed camp, the Roman speaketh this:
"Are these same bands those self-same bands that never fought in vain?
And ye the men that following still my standard, still did gain?
Even these, and ye, are very those: nor can I discommend
Your manhoods that with lesser work brought greater wars to end.
But not, as was my wont to write, the Senate now shall read,
'I came, I saw, I overcame': such foes forbid such speed.
Nor let the Senate muse, for Troy with Troy doth here contend:
This warlike people (fame is so) from whence sprung we descend.
Yea, if Aeneas had not left the Phrygian gods{Penates Publici} to us,
And Greeks Palladium{statue of Athena held to be protective to the city housing it} shipped to Greece, this Fortune foiling thus,
I would have thought those very gods had followed our annoy:
But them have we; these only have undaunted hearts from Troy.
But what? Shall Caesar doubt{fear} to fight against so brave a foe?
No, Caesar's triumphs{triumphal parades in Rome} with their spoils shall give the braver{better-looking} show.
Ye gods that guide our capitol, Mount Palatine, thou throne
Of stately Rome, ye followers too of her affairs each one,
Delay not but deprive me quite my triumphs now in hand
Nor let me live if so I leave unconquerèd this land--
This land, the last of western isles, an isle unknown ere this,
Which famous now, through Caesar's fight, and our misfortune is.
Enough, my fellow friends in arms, enough we Romans have
To seek revenge. Your conquest is a country rich and brave,
And (which persuadeth victory) in Troynovant there be
That hold that city to our use. The Britons disagree:
No Scot or Pict assisting them in these our wars I see.
Their civil strife will prove their scourge, how stout soe'er they seem,
And perpetuity doth fail in every thing extreme.
Not Fortune still is good or bad, and now let be our day:
Too long we live if that so long we shall on trifles stay,"
Said Caesar, and with such his words did so inflame his men
That with less patience did they live than linger battle then.
The Romans bid the base{challenged}, and then did cruel war begin,
And little wanted that the Brits the better did not win.
But Caesar so foresaw supplies and succors here and there,
Persuading this, dissuading that, controlling flight and fear,
That after many Romans slain, the Britons took their flight
To southern shores, whereas to proof Cassibelan did fight
With oft eruptions out of woods until the trait'rous knight{Androgeus, also known as Mandubracius or Mandubratius in some accounts},
The Earl of London yields his charge and city to the foe,
Through which disloyal precedent did other cities so,
And then with hard-won tribute hence the conqueror did go.But he that won in every war at Rome in civil robe
Was stabbed to death: no certainty is underneath the globe.
The good are envied of the bad, and glory finds disdain,
And people are in constancy as April is in rain:
Whereof, amidst our serious pen, this fable entertain.
An ass, an old man, and a boy did through a city pass,
And whilst the wanton boy did ride, the old man led the ass. . .

7. Excerpt from "The Tragedy of Nennius," The First Part of the Mirror for Magistrates, by John Higgins (1574)

[This speech, from The First Part of the Mirror for Magistrates, attributed to John Higgins (1574), exemplifies the longer narratives based on England's distant past that provided a strong and consistent literary strain in the early modern period. While this speech by Nennius has little direct connection to Shakespeare's play except inasmuch as it dramatizes at greater length some of the historical material referred to as background for the political conflict in Cymbeline, it also demonstrates the proud, nationalistic rhetoric whose validity seems to be in question in 3.1.]

NENNIUS
[...]
His eldest son and heir was after king,
A noble prince, and he was named Lud,
Full politic and wise in every thing,
And one that willed his country always good;
Such uses, customs, statutes he withstood
As seemed to bring the public weal's decay,
And them abolished, brake, repealed away.So he the walls of Troy the New{Troynovant, or London} renewed,
Enlarged them made, with forty towers about,
And at the west side of the wall he viewed
A place for gates to keep the enemies out.
There made he prisons for the poor bankrout{bankrupt}
Named Ludgate yet for free men debtors, free
From hurt, till with their creditors they gree{come to terms}.Some say the city also took the name
Of Lud my brother, for he it repaired,
And I must needs as true confess the same
Forwhy{Because} that time no cost on it he spared
He still{always} increased and peopled every ward
And bade them aye{always} Caer Lud the city call,
Or Ludstone; now you name it London all.At length he died, his children under age
(The elder named was Androgeus),
Committing both unto my brother's charge;
The younger of them hight{was called} Tenantius.
The Britons, wanting aged rulers, thus
Chose for that time Cassibelan their king.
My brother justice meant in every thing.The Roman then, the mighty Caesar, fought
Against the Gauls and conquered them by might,
Which done, he stood on shores where see he mought{could}
The ocean seas, and Britain cliffs full bright.
Quoth he, "What region lies there in my sight?
Methinks some island in the seas I see
Not yet subdued, nor vanquished yet by me."With that they told him, we the Britons were,
A people stout{brave}, and fierce in feats of war.
Quoth he, "The Romans never yet with fear
Of nation rude were daunted of so far:
We therefore mind to prove them what they are."
And therewithal{along with that}, he letters hither sent,
By those embasssage brought, and thus they went:

C. Julius Caesar, Dictator of Rome, to Cassibelan, King of Britain, sendeth greeting.Sith that the gods have given us all the West
As subjects to our Roman empire high,
By war, or as it seemed Jove the best,
Of whom we Romans came, and chiefly I.Therefore, to you which in the ocean dwell
As yet not underneath subjection due,
We send our letters greeting, wit{know} ye well;
In warlike cases, thus we deal with you:First, that you, as the other regions, pay
Us tribute yearly, Romans, we require;
Then, that you will with all the force you may
Withstand our foes, as yours with sword and fire;And thirdly that, by these{ambassadors}, you pledges{hostages} send
T'assure the covenants once agreed by you--
So, with your danger less, our wars may end,
Else bid we war, Cassibelan, adieu.Caesar

No sooner were these Caesar's letters seen
But straight the king for all his nobles sent;
He showed them what their ancestors had been
And prayed them tell in this their whole intent{will}.
He told them whereabout{about what} the Romans went
And what subjection was, how servile they
Should be if Caesar bare their pomp away.And all the Britons even as set on fire
(Myself not least enflamed was to fight)
Did humbly him in joyful wise require
That he his letters would to Caesar write
And tell him plain we passed not of{didn't care about} his spite.
We passed{cared} as little of the Romans, we,
And less than they of us, if less might be,Wherefore the joyful king again replied,
Through counsel wise of all the nobles had,
By letters he the Romans' hests denied
Which made the Britons' haughty hearts full glad,
No doubt the Romans more than half were mad,
To hear his letters written, thus they went,
Which he again to mighty Caesar sent:

Cassibelan, King of Britain, to C. Julius Caesar, Dictator, sendeth answer:As thou, O Caesar, writest, the gods have given to thee
The West: so I reply, they gave this island me.
Thou sayst you Romans and thyself of gods descend;
And darst thou then to spoil our Trojan blood pretend{intend}?
Again, though gods have given thee all the world as thine,
That's parted from the world; thou gettest no land of mine.
And sith likewise of gods we came, a nation free,
We owe no tribute, aid, or pledge to Rome or thee.Retract thy will or wage thy war, as likes thee best;
We are to fight, and rather than to friendship, pressed.
To save our country from the force of foreign strife,
Each Briton here is well content to venture life.
We fear not of the end or dangers thou dost tell,
But use thy pleasure if thou mayest; thus fare thou well.Cassibelan

When Caesar had received his answer so,
It vexed him much. He fully straight decreed
To wage us war and work us Britons woe;
Therefore, he hasted hitherward with speed.
We Britons eke prepared ourselves with heed
To meet the Romans all in warlike wise
With all the force and speed we might devise.We Britons then far deemed it meeter much
To meet him first at th'entry on this land
Than for to give an entry here to such
Might with our victuals here ourselves withstand.
'Tis better far thy enemy to aband{banish}
Quite from thy borders to a stranger soil
Than he at home thee and thy country spoil,Wherefore we met him at his entry in
And pitch our camps directly in his way.
We minded sure to lose or else to win
The praise before we passed from thence away,
So when that both the armies were in ray{order for battle}
And trumpet's blast on every side was blown,
Our minds to either each were quickly known.We joined battle; fiercely, both we fought,
The Romans to enlarge their Empire's fame,
And we with all the force and might we mought{might}
To save our country and to keep our name.
O worthy Britons, learn to do the same!
We brake the rays{lines} of all the Roman host
And made the mighty Caesar leave his boast.Yet he, the worthiest captain ever was,
Brought all in ray{order} and fought again anew:
His skillful soldiers he could bring to pass
At once, forwhy{because} his trainings all they knew.
No sooner I his noble corps{body} did view
But in I ­brake amongst the captain's band,
And there I fought with Caesar hand to hand.O god, thou mightst have given a Britain grace
T'have slain the Roman Caesar, noble then
Which sought his blood, the Britons to deface
And bring in bondage valiant worthy men.
He never should have gone to Rome again,
To fight with Pompey, or his peers to slay,
Or else to bring his country in decay.It joyed my heart to strike on Caesar's crest.
O Caesar, that there had been none but we!
I often made my sword to try thy breast,
But Lady Fortune did not look on me.
I able was, methought, with Caesars three,
To try the case: I made thy heart to quake
When on thy crest with mighty stroke I strake{struck}.The strokes thou strokest{struck} me hurt me nought at all
Forwhy{because} thy strength was nothing in respect{comparison},
But thou hadst bathed thy sword in poison all,
Which did my wound, not deadly else, infect.
Yet was I, or{ere} I parted thence, bewreaked{revenged};
I got thy sword from thee for all thy fame
And made thee fly for fear to eat the same,For when thy sword was in my target{shield} fast{stuck},
I made thee fly and quickly leave thy hold.
Thou never wast in all thy life so ghast{pale},
Nor durst again be ever half so bold.
I made a number Romans' hearts full cold.
"Fight, fight, you noble Britons now," quoth I,
"We never all will unrevenged die!"What, Caesar, though thy praise and mine be odd{unequal}?
Pardie{certainly}, the stories scarce remember me,
Though poets all of thee do make a god,
Such simple fools in making gods they be.
Yet if I might my case have tried with thee,
Thou never hadst returned to Rome again,
Nor of thy faithful friends been beastly slain.A number Britons mightst thou there have seen
Death-wounded fight and spoil their spiteful foes;
Myself, maimed, slew and mangled mo[re], I ween{believe},
When I was hurt than twenty more of those.
I made the Romans' hearts to take their hose;
In all the camp no Roman scarce I spied
Durst half a combat gainst a Briton bide.At length I met a noble man--they called
Him Labienus, one of Caesar's friends--
A tribune erst{previously} had many Britons thralled{captured};
Was one of Caesar's legates forth he sends.
"Well met," quod I. "I mind to make thee mends{recompense}
For all thy friendship to our country crew."
And so, with Caesar's sword, his friend I slew.What need I name you every Briton here,
As first the king, the nobles all beside,
Full stout{brave} and worthy wights in war that were,
As ever erst{before} the stately Romans tried?
We fought so long they durst no longer bide.
Proud Caesar, he, for all his brags and boast,
Flew back to ships with half his scattered host.If he had been a god as sots him named,
He could not of us Britons taken foil{been repulsed}.
The monarch Caesar might have been ashamed
From such an island with his ships recoil,
Or else to fly and leave behind the spoil.
But life is sweet; he thought it better fly
Than bide amongst us Britons for to die.I had his sword, was named Crocea mors{"Yellow Death"},
With which he gave me in the head a stroke,
The venom of the which had such a force
It able was to pierce the heart of oak.
No medicines might the poison out revoke;
Wherefore, though scarce he pierced had the skin,
In fifteen days my brains it rankled in.And then too soon, alas, therefor I died.
I would to God he had returned again
So that I might but once the dastard spied
Before he went: I had the serpent slain.
He played the coward cutthroat all too plain,
A beastly serpent's heart that beast detects{reveals},
Which or{ere} he fight, his sword with bane{poison} infects.Well then my death brought Caesar no renown,
For both I got thereby eternal fame
And eke his sword to strike his friends adown:
I slew therewith his, Labiene by name.
With prince against my country foes I came;
Was wounded, yet did never faint nor yield
Till Caesar with his soldiers fled the field.Who would not venture life in such a case?
Who would not fight at country's whole request?
Who would not, meeting Caesar in the place,
Fight for life, prince, and country with the best?
The greatest courage is by facts expressed.
Then for thy prince, with fortitude as I,
And realm's behoof{benefit} is praise to live or die.Now write my life when thou hast leisure, and
Will all thy countrymen to learn by me,
Both for their prince and for their native land,
As valiant, bold, and fearless for to be.
A pattern plain of fortitude they see,
To which directly, if themselves they frame,
They shall preserve their country, faith and fame.

8. Excerpt fromHenry VIII, by John Fletcher and William Shakespeare (1623)

A prophecy about a royal line, seen in the tablet left by Jupiter and interpreted by the Soothsayer in Cymbeline, recurs in this passage from John Fletcher and William Shakespeare's Henry VIII. In each play, the princess—Imogen in one, and the future Queen Elizabeth in the other—is associated with a phoenix for her virtue and chastity; and the collocation of "peace" and "plenty," along with the image of the mountain cedar symbolizing a monarch, further links the two plays and their related themes.

CRANMER
Let me speak, sir,
For Heaven now bids me; and the words I utter,
Let none think flattery, for they'll find 'em truth.
This royal infant--Heaven still move about her--
Though in her cradle yet now promises
Upon this land a thousand thousand blessings
Which time shall bring to ripeness. She shall be
(But few now living can behold that goodness)
A pattern to all princes living with her
And all that shall succeed: Saba{equated with the Queen of Sheba in 1 Kings 10, who visits King Solomon because she has heard of his wisdom} was never
More covetous of wisdom and fair virtue
Than this pure soul shall be. All princely graces
That mold up such a mighty piece as this is,
With all the virtues that attend the good,
Shall still be doubled on her. Truth shall nurse her;
Holy and heavenly thoughts still counsel her.
She shall be loved and feared: her own shall bless her,
Her foes shake like a field of beaten corn
And hang their heads with sorrow.
Good grows with her.
In her days, every man shall eat in safety
Under his own vine what he plants, and sing
The merry songs of peace to all his neighbors.
God shall be truly known, and those about her
From her shall read the perfect way of honor,
And by those{i.e., the ways of honor} claim their greatness, not by blood.
Nor shall this peace sleep with her, but as when
The bird of wonder dies, the maiden phoenix,
Her ashes new create another heir
As great in admiration as herself,
So shall she leave her blessedness to one{i.e., King James},
When Heaven shall call her from this cloud of darkness,
Who, from the sacred ashes of her honor,
Shall star-like rise as great in fame as she was
And so stand fixed. Peace, plenty, love, truth, terror,
That were the servants to this chosen infant
Shall then be his, and like a vine grow to him;
Wherever the bright sun of Heaven shall shine,
His honor and the greatness of his name
Shall be and make new nations. He shall flourish
And like a mountain cedar reach his branches
To all the plains about him; our children's children
Shall see this and bless Heaven.