Early Modern Culture

1. Excerpt fromA World of Wonders, by Henri Estienne (1607--the English translation)

[Early modern philologists occasionally constructed probable-sounding word histories. However, these fictional etymologies often reflected the beliefs of the time rather than authentic origins. The Soothsayer's claim that the Latin word "mulier," or wife, was derived from "mollis aer," or, as he defines it, a "piece of tender air," illustrates this behavior (5.4.444-446). Henri Estienne's A World of Wonders attacks this practice as ignorant, using the same example of "mulier." Although the dating of Cymbeline is uncertain, the temporal proximity of Richard Carew's 1607 English translation of Estienne's text to Cymbeline is suggestive.[

But this is not all, for they have been so curious{clever} in rendering reasons of every word they spake as that they have overskipped but very few without knowing their etymologies; nay, they have found out such subtle notations as cannot sufficiently be wondered at. . .

Now, this subtle{ingenious} and curious etymologizing is not in these names only but in all other names of the saints registered in the book called The Golden Legendor Legends. For example, "Gregory" is compounded of grex--that is, "an assembly"--and of goire--that is, "preacher." "Katherine," of katha--that is, "all"--and of ruina—"overthrow"--for the devil's fort was clean overthrown in her, "Katherine" signifying as much as "universal overthrow," he being dislodged and cast out of her. "Quintine" comes of quinque, "five," and teneo, tenes, "to hold," signifying "one which holdeth five things."

If any shall reply and say that it is not to be wondered that the ancient Latinists never mentioned these etymologies, considering the names were not then in use, I answer that they had as good dexterity in giving etymologies of ancient Latin words: witness the notation of mulier{wife}, quasi{as} "mollis aer"{soft air}.

2. "The Necessity of Hanging," The Praise and Virtue of a Jail and Jailers, by John Taylor (1623)

[The circulation of clothing among differing social classes and for multiple purposes constituted an important facet of early modern English material culture in England. Employers often gave used clothing to their servants or bequeathed it to them in their wills. However, due to sumptuary laws regulating who was allowed to wear clothes of given colors and fabrics, the clothing's recipients often could not legally wear the clothes, in which case the servants would tend to sell the clothes, either to a shop or to a theater company to be used for costumes. Sometimes, clothes were purchased specifically for a new role, but access to a new costume might also motivate the company's playwrights to create a new class of character in order to exploit the costly material assets.

In Cymbeline, characters occasionally refer to this circulation of material: Imogen compares herself to disused clothing that would, "out of fashion," need to be dismantled in order that the valuable fabric could be used for a new purpose, for instance (3.4.43-45); Clotten's demand that Pisanio give him Posthumus's garments in 3.5 reflects the great symbolic value of clothing as well its transferability. Posthumus's scene with the Jailer does not explicitly mention any exchange of clothing, but the fact that prisoners condemned to death traditionally left their clothing to the executioner is reminiscent of this practice, which can also be seen in the excerpt below from John Taylor's The Praise and Virtue of a Jail and Jailers (1623).]

I oft have seen good garments for men's wearing
Have very thriftily been hanged to airing,
And I have seen those garments (like good fellows{friends})
Hang kindly with their master at the gallows
And then into the hangman's wardrobe drop;
Have been again hanged in a broker's shop,
Which after by a cutpurse bought might be
And make another journey to the tree{gallows},
Twixt which and twixt the broker, it might go{walk}
Or ride some twelve or thirteen times or mo{more}.
Thus th'hangman's harvest and the broker's grow:
They reap the crop which sin and shame doth sow.

3. Excerpt from "The Order for the Burial of the Dead," The Book of Common Prayer(1552)

[In act 4, scene 2, when Belarius, Guiderius, and Arviragus believe that Imogen is dead, the two young men prepare for the interment by using a familiar variation on the traditional Church of England rituals: the corpse is made ready, the liturgists speak or sing appropriate words, and the body is committed to the earth. In Cymbeline (as at Ophelia's funeral in Hamlet), Shakespeare also draws upon a convention that is not prescribed by The Book of Common Prayer, which is that the onlookers place flowers on the corpse; "The Order for the Burial of the Dead" does allude to flowers, however, in the line, "He cometh up and is cut down like a flower," and despite its moments of levity, the song "Fear No More" offers an interesting counterpoint to the familiar liturgy.]

When they come at the grave, whiles the corpse is made ready to be laid into the earth, the priest shall say, or the priest and clerks shall sing:

Man that is born of a woman hath but a short time to live and is full of misery: he cometh up and is cut down like a flower, he flieth as it were a shadow, and never continueth in one stay{stands still}. In the midst of life we be in death. Of whom may we seek for succor but of thee, O Lord, which for our sins justly art displeased? Yet, O Lord God most holy, O Lord most mighty, O holy and most merciful Savior, deliver us not into the bitter pains of eternal death. Thou knowest, Lord, the secrets of our hearts: shut not up thy merciful eyes to our prayers but spare us, Lord most holy, O God most mighty, O holy and merciful Savior, thou most worthy judge eternal; suffer us not at our last hour for any pains of death to fall from thee.

Then, while the earth shall be cast upon the body by some standing by, the priest shall say:

Forasmuch as it hath pleased almighty God of his great mercy to take unto himself the soul of our dear brother here departed, we therefore commit his body to the ground, earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust, in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life through our Lord Jesus Christ, who shall change our vile body that it may be like to his glorious body, according to the mighty working whereby he is able to subdue all things to himself.

Then shall be said or sung:

I heard a voice from heaven, saying unto me: write, from henceforth blessed are the dead which die in the lord. Even so sayeth the spirit, that they rest from their labors.

4. Excerpt from "Colin Clout," by John Skelton (1545)

[This portion from "Colin Clout" represents an attack on the corrupt clergymen who would purportedly focus on the worldly comforts detailed here, demonstrating their failure to resist the temptations of power and wealth, or "worldly wantonness." However, in his depiction of richly-appointed chambers, Skelton also captures the state of luxurious interior furnishings that still existed at the time Shakespeare wrote Cymbeline, and the parallels between the classically-inspired scenes of seduction on the walls in "Colin Clout" and those in Cymbeline suggest a potential critique of Imogen's taste in decorating as unchaste, or at least suggestive.]

Building royally
Their mansions curiously{elaborately}
With turrets and with towers,
With halls and with bowers,
Stretching to the stars
With glass windows and bars;
Hanging about the walls,
Cloths of gold and palls{rich, decorative hanging cloths},
Arras{tapestry} of rich array
Fresh as flowers in May
With dame Diana naked,
How lusty Venus quaked,
And how Cupid shaked
His dart and bent his bow
For to shoot a crow
At her tirly tirlow{singing},
And how Paris of Troy
Danced a lege de moy{the name of a dance},
Made lusty sport and joy
With dame Helen the queen,
With such stories bedene{together};
Their chambers well be seen{furnished}
With triumphs of Caesar
And of his Pompeius' war,
Of renown and of fame
By them to get a name.

5. Excerpt fromA Flourish upon Fancy, by Nicholas Breton (1577)

[Iachimo's lush descriptions of Imogen's bedchamber, both in his stealthy visit to that room and again when he reports the results of that visit to Posthumus, play upon some of the ambivalence extant in the early modern period regarding lavish interior decorations. On the one hand, the trappings of court in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods required a certain amount of ostentatious display linked with prestige; on the other hand, luxurious treatments could equally signify luxurious dispositions—in other words, an inclination towards lust. Imogen's famed artwork in her bedchamber can thus be read two different ways: either as a sign of her royal status as a patron and consumer of art, or as a woman whose taste in pagan art betrays her erotic character. Nicholas Breton's 1577 poem A Flourish upon Fancy includes a passage describing Fancy's bedchamber in language that prefigures Imogen's in the cataloguing of the artwork and in the suggestive details of the art itself.]

To Fancy{here, a personification of capriciousness and sexual attraction}, then, good sir, he brings you by and by,
And there may you behold her, how she sitteth{resides} gallantly{in elegance};
Her chamber large and long, bedecked with thousand toys{trifles or knick-knacks, also sometimes associated with sexual dalliance}:
Brave{splendid} hanging cloths{tapestry} of rare device{design}, pictures of naked boys,
And girls too, now and then, of sixteen years of age,
That will within a year or two grow fit for marriàge.
But they must have a lawn{piece of fine linen}, a scarf, or some such toy,
To shroud their shamefastness{modesty} withal{with}; but if it be a boy,
He stands without a lawn, as naked as my nail,
For Fancy hath a sport{finds entertainment} sometime to see a naked tail.
Besides, in pictures too, and toys of strange device,
With stories of old Robin Hood, and Walter Little Wise,
Some shows of war long since, and captains wounded sore,
And soldiers slain--at one conflict, a thousand men and more;
Of hunting of wild beasts, as lions, boars, and bears,
To see how one another oft in sunder{asunder} strangely tears;
Of gallant cities, towns; of gardens, flowers, and trees;
Of choice of pleasant herbs and fruits, and suchlike toys as these.
These hang about the walls; the floor now is strowed{strewn}
With pleasant flowers, herbs and sweets, which in her garden growed{grew}.

6. Excerpt from "High Treason," The Country Justice, by Michael Dalton (1619)

[The laws regarding high treason in early modern England extend beyond what one might assume would be the main province of treason laws—protecting the body of the sovereign and the country against direct physical assaults—to a constellation of laws covering the sovereign's more indirect rights, such as the monopolistic right to issue coins or the right to determine the state religion. Many of the characters in Cymbeline, including the protagonists, arguably commit treason according to these laws as recorded in Dalton's The Country Justice: arguments exist for considering Cymbeline, the Queen, Clotten, Posthumus, Pisanio, and Imogen, for instance, guilty of various treasonous crimes (including, in Cymbeline's case, crimes against Rome). In addition, Shakespeare draws upon the royal prerogatives for his imagery, including significant use of "coining" (forging) metaphors throughout the play.]

High treason, called in law crimen lesae majestatis{a crime against the sovereign}, is a grievous offense done or attempted against the estate regal, videlicet{that is to say}, against the king (the head, life, and ruler of the commonwealth) in his person, the queen his wife, his children, realm, or authority, as to compass{plot} the death of the king, the queen his wife, or of their eldest son and heir; to intend or imagine their or any of their deaths, though they bring it not to effect: scilicet{to wit}, if they shall declare this by any open act whereby it may be known or to utter{circulate; publish} it by words or letters; to intend to deprive or depose the king or to say that he will be king after the king's death, etc.

If one that is non compos mentis{legally incapable of reason} do kill or attempt to kill the king, it is in him high treason, whereas petty treason{a similar crime to treason, but committed by a wife to a husband, servant to a master, etc.}, homicide, or larceny shall not be imputed to such a person.

One constable pointed to another, saying to his friends, "Behold King Edward!" (who was then dead), and for those words he had judgment and execution as a traitor, but [Coke] observeth that the words were accompanied with other circumstances, which appear not in our usual printed books.

Also, to deflower the king's wife; his eldest daughter, being unmarried; or his eldest son and heir's wife is high treason.

To levy war against the king, etc., in this realm is high treason. Note that to detain or hold a castle or fortress against the king is to levy war against the king. So, to conspire to levy war against the king is high treason.

To practice with a governor of another country to invade this realm is high treason. So, to kill one that is sent in the king's message.

To encounter in fight and kill such as be assisting to the king in his wars, or such as come to help the king, is high treason.

These two last cases were holden{held} to be high treason before the statute of 25 Edw. 3{the 25^th year of King Edward III's reign}.

To be adherent to the king's enemies, aiding them in his realm or elsewhere, is high treason.

But if an alien enemy come to invade this realm and be taken in war, he cannot be indicted of treason, but he shall be put to death by martial law. Otherwise it is of an alien whose king is in league or at peace with our king; he shall be indicted and arraigned of treason and shall have judgment accordingly. An English traitor pleading that he is a subject to a foreign prince shall, notwithstanding, upon a nihil dicit{"he says nothing"; failure to plead innocent or guilty} recorded, have judgment as a traitor.

To counterfeit the king's great seal, sign manual, privy signet, or privy seal is high treason. So, to take an old seal and put it to a new patent, etc., yet quaere{it remains a question} whether this be treason or but misprision. Also quaere of such as without authority shall set the king's seal upon any writing or shall fraudulently thrust a writing amongst others to the seal and so get it sealed.

To counterfeit the king's money or any other coin which is current within this realm is high treason. So, to forge such coin, though he uttereth{circulates} it not. To forge or counterfeit any coin which is not current in this realm is misprision of treason. To clip, wash, round, file, impair, diminish, lighten, or falsify any coin current within this realm is treason.{The methods referred to here are means of diminishing the metal content of a coin by cutting, scraping, filing, treating with acid, or otherwise reducing it incrementally in order to collect the metal thus removed.}

To bring from beyond the sea into this realm any false and counterfeit coin of any other realm being current within this realm, knowing it to be false, is high treason; but to bring such money into England out of Ireland is but misprision, though he knoweth it and uttereth it, quia Hibernia est quasi membrum Angliae{because Ireland is as a limb of England}.

If he which by the king's warrant doth coin money, either in England, Ireland, or elsewhere, maketh it much less in weight than the ancient ordinance, or coineth false metal, it is treason.

To utter{distribute} false money made within this realm or other the king's dominions, knowing thereof, is misprision of treason.

To kill the King's Chancellor, Treasurer, Justice of either Bench{Common Bench or King's/Queen's Bench}, Justice in Eyre{circuit judge}, Justice of Assize{judge at judicial inquests such as jury trials}, or Justice of Oyer and Terminer{circuit judge allowed to hear higher crimes such as treason}, being in his place doing his office, is high treason.

Note that the counselors, procurers{instigators}, consenters{parties}, and aiders to any of the aforenamed treasons be all within the compass and danger of high treason, for in treason all the offenders be principals.

To conceal or keep secret any high treason is misprision of treason.

And all receivers and accessories to high treason after the offense seem to be in case of misprision.

If two or more do conspire to commit high treason, and some of them after do commit and execute it, this is high treason in them all by the common law.

. . .

Misprision

So, to strike any person in the king's court (palace or other house) the king being then in his court; and judgment was given accordingly in such case upon a knight for striking another at Greenwich, the king being there. Yet now see the statute of 33 Hen. 8, c.12{the Offenses within the Court Act, 1541}, that such an offender in the king's palace, although he shall draw blood by striking there, he shall forfeit neither the profits of his lands nor his goods but shall lose his right hand, be imprisoned during his life, and shall pay fine and ransom at the king's pleasure. And so now such offense done in the king's palace shall not have so grievous a punishment as if it be done in Westminster Hall.

. . .

Misprision is properly when one knoweth that another hath committed, or is about for to commit, any treason or felony, but was not, or is not, consenting thereto and will not discover{reveal} the offender to the king or his council, or to some magistrate, but conceals the offense.

For misprision of treason, the offender shall forfeit to the king his goods and chattels{property} forever, and the profits of his lands during his life, and also shall be imprisoned during his life.

. . .

For high treason, the offender shall be hanged, cut down alive, and quartered, and he shall forfeit all his lands and goods, etc., to the king; yea, at this day, his lands entailed shall be forfeited, and his wife shall lose her dower, and his blood shall be corrupted{officially stripping the family of all rank, title, and associated lands}, saving in certain cases.

7. Excerpt from The Game of Chess, by Jacobus de Cessolis, trans. William Caxton (1474)

[One of the more obscure dangers alluded to in Cymbeline is the potential deadliness of severe shock; King Cymbeline seems to be in especial danger, as at 1.1.11 and 1.2.69, where characters imply that he is prone to being so upset by events that it could prove fatal. This is not considered an unusual reaction to shock in the period; works such as The Game of Chess record multiple examples of people dying after being profoundly surprised and were used as evidence of the necessity of preparing people gently for such mental trauma. Notably, good news as well as bad news was considered potentially lethal if the shock was great enough. The fact that the (spurious) etymology of "mollis aer" which appears in the play's final scene is present here as well, offering justification for why women might be more prone to such an emotional response, is also notable.]

They ought to make their plasters{bandages treated with an adhesive, often medicinal, substance} according to the wounds or sores: if the wound be round, the emplaster must be round; and if it{the wound} be long, it{the emplaster} must be long.

And otherwhile{sometimes} it must be cured by his contrary, like as it appertaineth to physic{is appropriate for medicine}, for the heat is cured by cold, and the cold by heat; and joy by sorrow, and sorrow by joy. And it happeth ofttimes that much people be in great peril in taking{experiencing} too much joy and lose her members{become deprived of feeling in their limbs} and become half benumben{benumbed} in the sudden joy.

And joy is a repletion{surfeiting} of [a] thing that is delectable{full of delight}, spread abroad in all the members with right great gladness, and all men intend and desire to have the said right great joy naturally, but they know not what may ensue and come thereof. And this joy cometh otherwhile{sometimes} of virtue of conscience, and the wise man is not without this joy. And this joy is never interrupt ne in default{interrupted nor incomplete} at no time, for it cometh of nature, and fortune may not take away that nature giveth. And Martial saith that joys fugitive abide not long but flee away anon{at once}.

And Valerian rehearseth{reports} that he that hath force and strength reasonable hath it of very matter of complexion, and that cometh of love, and this joy hath as much power to depart the soul from the body as hath the thunder, whereof it happened that there was a woman named Lyna which had her husband in the war in the ships of the Romans, and she supposed verily that he was dead. But it happened that he came again home, and as he entered into his gate, his wife met with him suddenly, not warned of his coming, which was so glad and joyous that in embracing him she fell down dead.

Also of another woman to whom was reported by a false messenger that her son was dead, which went home sorrowfully to her house, and afterward, when her son came to her, as soon as she saw him, she was so emoved with joy that she died tofore{before; in front of} him.

But this is not so great marvel of women as is of the men, for the women ben{are} likened unto soft wax or soft air, and therefore she is called mulier, which is as much to say in Latin as "mollis aer," and in English, "soft air." And it happeth ofttimes that the nature of them that ben{are} soft and moll{effeminate} taketh sooner impression than the nature of men that is{are} rude{robust} and strong.

Valerius{Valerius Maximus} rehearseth and saith that a knight of Rome named Instaulosus{given in Valerius's text as Juventius Thalna} that had newly conquered and subjuged{subdued} the isle of Corsica, and as he sacrificed{to} his gods, he received letters from the Senate of Rome in which were contained divers supplications{thanksgivings to the gods}, the which when he understood he was so glad and so enterprised{overwhelmed} with joy that he knew not what to do. And then a great fumee or smoke issued out of the fire in which he disappeared{or despaired?} and fell into the fire where he was anon dead.

And also it is said that Philomenus laughed so sore and distemperately that he died all laughing.

And we read that Hippocrates the physician found remedy for this joy, for when he had long dwelled out of his country for to learn cunning and wisdom and should return unto his parents and friends, when he approached nigh them, he sent a messenger tofore{ahead} for to tell to them his coming and commanded him to say that he came, for they had not long tofore{before} seen him and that{so that} they should attemper{moderate} them in that joy ere they should see him.